Diversity in North American Literatures I
Between Immigration and Native American Literature
Emma Lazarus “The New Colossus” (1883)
Immigration
Immigration
has been central to the formation of the American identity. From 1840s till the
1920 (Quota Laws) masses of immigrants mainly from Europe came to the US. Since
1866 Lady Liberty with Emma Lazarus’ famous poem inscribed at the base has been
transformed form a woman holding a torch into a welcoming sign for immigrants.
However, in the late 19th and early 20th century the
immigrants who arrived from Eastern and Southern Europe were often met with
suspicion and fear. These “New Immigrants” not only lacked skills but were
often poorly educated. Many competed for low paying jobs in the factories and
were held responsible for the problems in the quickly growing urban regions. Although
many lived in dire poverty their presence greatly affected the development of
the American society. Seen as aliens, immigrants who were not “of a western
European stock” were often shunned by antagonistic fractions that touted the melting
pot myth as the assimilation ideal. While immigrants felt the pressures of the
forced assimilation to a “genuine American identity” most keenly, throughout
the American history the policy of assimilation was challenged by various
movements of ethnic awareness. In the wake of the civil rights movement in the
1960s, the ethnic revival of the 1970s and the institutionalization of cultural
pluralism, the debate about assimilation and immigration was sparked once more
by Arthur M. Schlesinger, who, in the preface to his controversial book The Disuniting of America: Reflections on aMulticultural Society (1992), makes an argument a general return to the
melting pot ideal.
America has been a multi-ethnic country since its inception. As the Letters from an American Farmer written by Hector St. John deCrèvecoeur (French immigrant) show, 18th century America was a
diversified place. However, though intermarriage between different people of
different nationalities a new and genuinely American “race” was born, that
Crèvecoeur characterized as people (men) who “left behind the ancient
prejudices and manners, receives new ones from the new mode of life he has
embraced, the new government he obeys, and the new rank he holds. The American
is a new man, who acts upon new principles … Here individuals of all nations
are melted into a new race of men”. For Schlesinger the
E-Pluribus-Unum-Ideal was the ideal solution to counter-balance the inherent
frailty of multicultural and multi-ethnic societies. He continues that original
European immigrants to the US expected to become Americans and wanted to forget
the dismal memories of their horrid past. Ascribing transformative powers to new
American nation with its unique national character Schlesinger concludes that
the American idea was not meant to preserve old traditions but forge a New
American culture.
Ethnicity and immigration – Between many worlds (19f)
Focused on
conformity and homogeneity, the concept of assimilation in America for a long
time meant that all nationalities, ethnicities and cultures could be
incorporated into a new American national identity that emphasised the denial
of ethnic difference and the forgetting of cultural practices. Americanization
meant the dominance of one belief system/ set of values/ traditions and one
language (religion) to guarantee democracy and equality for all in America. In
the wake of the civil rights movement that helped cement ideas of ethnic pride
and cultural diversity and the rising interest in multiculturalism America has
moved away from the uniform idea of American nationhood towards cultural
pluralism. In a multicultural society the different ethnic groups have become a
source of cultural strength and assertion. Having achieved a certain level of
tolerance being American and being ethnic is no longer mutually exclusive.
However, especially Native Americans were seen as beyond
assimilation into the traditions of Northern European American culture. The
assimilationist metaphor of the melting-pot as a found myth of the American
nation emerged in 1908 from a play by Israel Zwangwill titled The Melting Pot.
Native American –
First Nations Literature
For much of America’s history writing
Native American’s were simply seen as the “Other”, that was conquered,
destroyed of pitied. From Crèvecoeur’s Letters
of an American Farmer in 1782 onwards the influx of Europeans was seen as
the starting point for the American vision of the New World. Assimilating
Indians into the Eurocentric American culture seemed impossible and, thus,
Native Americans were not only excluded from the promised riches that America
offered to European settlers but also from American history. As Oscar Handlin
wrote in The Uprooted, American history is the history of immigrants.
Although Native Americans “have
been studied to death, and […] looked
at”, as the Comanche writer LaDonna Harris remarks, “nobody
knows. The message does not get across”. To this day there are a number of
prejudices, misunderstandings and misconceptions about Native American people.
These troubles can be traced back to the early days of colonization. The idea
of the racially inferior child-like savage Native American clashed with the
imperialist position of American values. Native American’s were seen as an
obstacle in the way of composing a new civilized American identity. The
Painting “American Progress” by
John Gast 1872 that not only captures the westward drive of the
American settlers, it is also the allegorical representation of the so called “Manifest Destiny”
that is linked to the ideology used to justify the removal and dispossession of
Native Americans. The Woman in White as a symbol for American progress drives a
group of Native Americans further westward. But the actual West is already out
of the picture and new settlers are coming in.
Judith
Nies wrote: “At the beginning of the 1800s, white settlement was contained to the
east of the Appalachian Mountains. Except for the eastern seaboard, more than
80 percent of what is now the contiguous 48 states was Indian land. The history
of the 1800s in America is the story of how that land was taken away from its native inhabitants”.
Especially the period between 1870 and
1890 was fraught with war and violent conflict. The militant resistance of the Native American tribes, also called the
Indian Wars, only ended with the massacre at the Wounded Knee in 1890. By the
end of the 19th century a new era of forced assimilation politics had begun (Assimilation and
Termination).
While aggressive new legislation, like the Dawes Act from 1887, parceled out the reservation land and broke
down tribal unity, Native American culture was systematically suppressed by
reservation policies that were “aimed to ensure that Native Americans would […]
be educated and ‘civilized’ into the American way of life” (reader 27). With
the Dawes Act the head of each household was allotted 160 acres farm land, the
Native tribes were encouraged to work the land and start to get something out
of their farm work. The land was held in trust by the Secretary of the Interior
for 25 and taxes were suspended. After that period the land would fully become
the property of the head of the household, subjecting him to federal laws and
state law, including taxes. Porter remarked: „In practice, most
reservations were unsuitable for farming and the allotments were too small to
be economically viable. Many Indian farmers quickly found themselves in debt
and when the land was finally theirs, were forces to lease or sell it to
non-Indians. … The primary overall effect of the Dawes Act was not to create
Indian homesteads and foster the assimilation of Indians as fully integrated
individual into American society. Instead, the Act made a great many Indians
landless and assimilated around two-thirds of the Indian land-base into
non-Indian ownership“. (Porter 53)
In the 1950s the House Concurrent
Resolution 108 marked the beginning of the Era of Termination, when tribes lost their political and cultural
status. As a result 109 tribes were terminated i.e. no longer recognized as
Native American Communities. Once again a million acres of land and thousands
of people were affected by a large scale relocation and assimilation programme.
However, „despite government promises of relocation to major urban areas,
vocational training, financial assistance during training, job placement
programs, and adequate housing, Indian people recognized House Concurrent
Resolution 108 as an attempt to acquire what little Indian land remained and
assimilate Indian peoples into mainstream culture”[4]
(Johnson)
Government mandated
assimilation programmes worked mostly through education and through relocation.
Assimilation through education relied heavily on mostly Christian (even
Catholic) boarding schools, by 1920 70 % of native children in the US were
separated from their families and forced to attend boarding schools, where
indigenous languages, customs, traditions, religions, dress and hairstyle were
strictly prohibited and the contact to family and friends discouraged. Through Christian doctrine, harsh discipline
and often abuse the idea was to educate the Indian out of the child. The
US Army Captain Richard H. Pratt, the 1st superintendant of the Carlisle Indian
Boarding School in Pennsylvania formulated the goal of this re-education
programme: “The only good Indian is a dead one. . . . All the Indian there
is in the race should be dead. Kill the Indian in him and save the man”.
A
considerable number of Native Americans were also relocated to the cities as a
result of a boarding school placement or the involvement in World War II
(25,000 Native Americans served in the armed forces during WW II). Since 1952,
an official national relocation program, supervised by the Bureau of Indian
Affairs (BAI) relocated Native Americans to major US cities such as LA, San Francisco,
Chicago, Cleveland, and Seattle. The grand majority of those who were relocated
experienced economic hardships and a
loss of the community in the city, where no communal structures were
available, no designated meeting spaces provided, thus “cultural destruction and alienation were inevitable. With their
familiar culture lost to them, Indians thus found themselves caught between two
conflicting impulses: the economic necessity that cause them to leave the
reservation and the cultural and emotional ties that made them want to return
to the reservation”. (Johnson)
The
relocation program created a frustrated, angry generation of young people, who
eventually started an active
ideologically motivated resistance aimed at reconstituting the shattered
tribal communities to save and restore a sense of Native American identity against
the pressures of disempowering assimilationist practices and policies. Despite
all its evils, the relocation program “actually gave Native Americans an
opportunity to meet each other and to work together toward pan-Indianism “
(Johnson 13). The pan-Indian pattern of
Native American activism is characteristic for the 1960s; earlier protests in the 1950 were largely tribal in nature.
In the summer of 1968
the UNA (United Native Americans) was founded in the San Francisco Bay Area,
which sought to unify all people of Indigenous descent throughout
the Americas and to promote the General Welfare of Native Americans. Many of
the Alcatraz occupiers (1969) were members of the UNA.
All these developments eventually led to the emergence of the American Indian Movement (AIM), a call
for Native American self-determination,
and a series of protests and stand-offs that became emblematic for what became known as the Red Power Era: the
19-months occupation of Alcatraz Island
(1969-71), the Trail of Broken Treaties Caravan and occupation of the BIA
offices in Washington, D.C. (1972), and the Siege at Pine Ridge and the
occupation of Wounded Knee (1973). AIM
was founded in in 1968 in Minneapolis by Clyde Bellecourt, Dennis Banks,
and George Mitchell and began as a largely urban organization with the goal of
fighting discrimination and pervasive police brutality (the AIM Patrol). In
Minneapolis, Native Americans comprised only 10% of the population, and yet
accounted for 70% of the city jail inmates. “AIM ultimately became the most
sophisticated and nationally recognized Indian activist group, with branches
throughout the United States” (Johnson 39) that used takeover as protest
tactics. While urban Native Americans welcomed the movement most Reservation
communities were afraid that this militant activism could lead to another wave
of harsh legislation.
Bill Means: “It was 1970 and I was still
overseas. I found out about AIM in a bunker in South Vietnam. They were passing
out this military newspaper, The Stars and Stripes, and I saw my brother
Russel‘s picture with some others on a statue of Chief Massasoit [Ousamequin].
They were at Plymouth Rock in Massachusetts, making a protest against Columbus.
And so I thought to myself, ‚Wow, I‘m really missing something here.‘“ (quoted
in Wittstock, p. 6)
Denis Banks: “Our work was local but little did we realize the
impact AIM was having in the United States and around the world. Phone calls
began to pour in, asking for AIM‘s help
in solving local issues, like fraudulent tribal elections and government
pressure on minority groups in Ireland and other parts of Western Europe. It
stretched our small resources to the breaking point. But we did not turn down
calls for help. We just tried our best to help those who were asking for our
presence and ability to help solve problems. How could we say no? At our heart
we were spiritually centered. Our elders and spiritual leaders said we had to
help all who called, so that‘s what we did.“ (quoted in Wittstock, p.
7)
Eddie Benton Bannai: “We tried to get the issues out, and gradually the media began to pay us some attention.
But the police harassment was the big
push. Actually, the police did us a favor, even though that was not their
intent. But it did bring the Indian community together. It brought the issue of
Indian people living in the urban area forward. So that kind of momentum helped
the communities of Minneapolis and St. Paul to be safer places to live.“ (quoted
in Wittstock, p. 5).
Leonard Peltier court case was
another “big AIM issue” that helped the movement gain momentum and brought
media attention for issues of police brutality and pre-criminalization by the
justice system. During the Pine Ridge Siege in 1975 two FBI agents and one
Native American were killed when they entered the ranch. Peltier was allegedly
spotted shooting, during the trial the prosecution presented circumstantial
evidence and highly questionable witness testimony, but Peltier was sentenced
to life (twice). Any attempts to get him a second hearing or his sentence
reduced have failed but the case is still a hot button issue with AIM
campaigners (cf. Campaign to free Leonard Peltier).
Native American Resistance is more than open militant activism within
the political arena. The war for recognition is also fought in the cultural
arena. Studying indigenous literature, thus, begins with a simple question - Is
indigenous Literature Ethnic? In actuality the answer should be No, but
according to Werner Soller’s
definition of “invented ethnicity”, indigenous literature and culture can be
analysed as “ethnic”.
Unlike other Ethnic groups, however, Native
Americans had to decolonize language for their own uses. Indigenous Writers
thus had to “reclaim, rename, and re-inhabit the land both literally and
metaphorically (reader 21). On a cultural level the Native
American Renaissance began with the emergence of literature and art by
Native Americans who reclaimed their
space by practicing their culture (cf. 1999 film: Smoke Signals). Songs and
Stories about the self and the other became an important cultural means of
resistance or as Thomas king
(Cherokee) said: “The truth about stories is that that‘s all we are”.
While N. Scott Mommady’s Pulitzer Prize winning novel “The House of Down”
(1969) is considered the founding text of the Native American Renaissance,
however, it is also important to remember that “the so-called Native American
Renaissance (1968 – present) springs from two centuries of writing in English
and many more centuries of literary production in indigenous languages.“
(Coulombe, 34) Telling stories in Native
American culture not only functions as a reminder of the cultural heritage but
also of the survivalist character of the people, thus, the dominant themes in
Native American Renaissance literature are questions
of personal identity and sense of place, articulation and inarticulatedness,
commitment to community and concern with the influence of Native oral
traditions of the form, aesthetics, and specific content of written texts.
Especially in the 1960s assertive Native American voices spoke out against
being absorbed by dominant mainstream American culture but challenging further
diminution of Indian rights. Gerald Vizenor calls these writers the “postindian
warriors” who “encounter their enemies with the same courage in literature as
their ancestors once evinced on horses” . “Native Americans faced
near genocide in the process of “nation-building”, but have survived to
rearticulate and promote their cultures within the United States”
One of the most prominent writers of the Native American Renaissance is
Louise Erdrich (“Scales) [and Tomson Highway (“hearts and flowers”)(Canadian)]
Louise Eldrich (Ojibway, French, German) was born
in Little Falls, Minessota to a Ojibway-French mother and a German father. She
grew up in Wahpeton (North Dakota). She owns a bookstore Birchbak Books as a
writer she has won numerous awards for her fiction on and poetry.
Her
short story “Scales” was published in The
Red convertible. There is an unknown narrator who tells the story of the 2
protagonists Gerry and Dot. Gerry has been on the “wagon” for 36 years
and imprisoned for most of his life. His troubles with the law started very
early in life and prison governed his whole adult existence. Breaking out and
being imprisoned again, he is caught in a vicious cycle over and over again,
that started when he was 18 years old. A fight broke out in a bar, a drunken
brawl with a cowboy led to a jail sentence for assault and battery. Despite his
firm belief in justice, the justice system dealt him, as an 18-year old Native
American, a harsh sentence. Exposing the double standard in the judicial
system, his life is the story of white people who make better witnesses and the
Native American who lack identification and social security numbers but also
the confidence in the US-judicial system. Gerry’s girlfriend Dot is pregnant;
the baby was conceived in the visiting room in the state prison. Even the
Unborn Baby seems effected by a dark foreshadowing. As a restless prisoner in
the womb, he is ready to break out without earning parole. The prison lingo
applied to an unborn baby emphasizes the implications of a vicious cycle that
destroys the lives of not only one person but of generations of Native
Americans who are treated unfairly by a biased justice system. While Gerry’s
breakouts in the past were effortless and without purpose, almost as a reflex,
the moment his son is born Gerry gains a purpose and running becomes a much
greater problem than before. Now he has something to run for but Gerry is
caught one last time at Pine Ridge. This allusion to the Leonard Peltier case
and the shoot-out between FBI agents and Native American occupiers, once more
emphasizes the injustices Native Americans face in the US-justice system (s.o),
but this ending is also an expression of the general hopelessness of Native
American in the 1960s and 70s. As Dot and her friend weigh the new-born baby on
the scales, it is too light to register, however, his fate has already been
pre-determined. His life may have no weight but others have weight and measured
him and found him wanting.
Tomson Highway (Cree) was born in 1951 in northern Manitoba
(Canada). He is a fluent Cree Language speaker, playwright and concert pianist
and the first indigenous writer to be inducted into the Order of Canada
(highest civilian honor) for his contribution to preserving Canadian Native
heritage.
His short story “hearts and flowers” was anthologized in “Our Story”. It is a story
about a significant historical and political event for the First Nations in
Canada, who gained the right to vote on the 31st of March 1960, but
is also the story of a boy, Daniel Daylight, in a Residential School who is
taken into town for piano lessons. Through the experiences of the young boy who
is trying to make sense of this momentous event in terms of human and
non-human, the reader learns that Indian people are segregated from white
Canadians and instilled with feelings of inferiority because of their command
of the English language and the lack of the right to vote. Wondering about the
latter, Daniel makes the connection between being human and the right to vote:
He is not considered human because he is not allowed to vote but he dreams of
his family becoming human again, once they are allowed to vote. Obsessed with
the thought of making his family human once more, he reasons that wining the
piano competition may make his people human. Daniel wins, which coincides with
the day the right to vote was officially granted to indigenous people. There is
also the personal story of the pianist, beneath the political historical story.
It is the story of a boy who uses music and art to cross “racial” boundaries by
playing in a competition with a white girl.
Native American ||
First Nations|| 21th century Indigenous Literatures and Media
Taking a
closer look at First Nations’ activism in Canada, the #Idle No More movement is
an important 21st century Native Canadian political movement that
started out as an opposition to the 2012 parliamentary Jobs and Growth Act,
formally the Bill C-45. Not unlike Occupy Wallstreet, the Idle no more Campaign
is a grassroots movement that makes extensive use of social media, teach-ins,
flash-mobs, dances, not only to repeal a significant section of the Canadian
government’s omnibus legislation but also to stabilize the emergency situations
in the first nations communities. Committed to a mutually beneficial
nation-to-nation relationship between Canada’s government and the First Nations
communities, activism in Canada gained with the Idle no more campaign a new
dimension. Their story was compiled in a book The Winter We Danced, which is a
compilation of newspaper articles and posts that by now include many different
voices who speak about different long and short term, national and
international goals: It started out as a hashtag on environmental issues,
protesting against governmental plans to extract natural resources on
indigenous lands, most notably the development of the Athabaska tar sands and
the construction of the so-called Enbridge Northern Gateway Pipelines.
Especially against latter pipeline that would run through indigenous land and
the Bill C-45 that made the project feasible, the campaigners mobilized
support. The act passed by the Parliament of Canada in
2012 was officially called Jobs and Growth Act. The most controversial
parts of the document are its Amendments to earlier legislation pertaining to
the protection of the environment, especially the waterways, and the
consultation with the First Nations in the matters relating to use of their
lands in resource development. Even Amnesty International in an open letter
(December 28, 2012) condemned the bill: “Changes to the Canadian
Environmental Assessment Act, the Fisheries Act, the Navigable Waters
Protection Act, and the proposed Safe Drinking Water for First Nations Act have
profound implications for the rights of Indigenous peoples as set out in
treaties, affirmed in the consultation, and protected by international human
right standards.”
With the
#idlenomore posts and protests the entire concept of resistance to colonialism
was revised. And Gerald Visznor’s
survivance-paradigm: “Native survivance is an active sense of presence over
absence, deracination, and oblivion; survivance is the continuance of stories,
not a mere reaction, however pertinent. Survivance
is greater than the right of a survivable name”, came under fire and was
somewhat replaced by a new “Resurgence”
for more empowerment of indigenous people: “Shame traps us individually and collectively
into the victimry of the colonial assault, and travels through the generations,
accumulating and manifesting itself in new and more insidious ways in each re-generation.
The cycles of shame we are cognitively locked into is in part perpetuated and maintained
by western theoretical constructions of‚ resistance,‘ ‚mobilization‘ and ‚social
movements,‘ by defining what is and is not considered. Through the lens of colonial
thought and cognitive imperialism, we are often unable to see our Ancestors.
We are unable to see their philosophies and their strategies of
mobilization and the complexities of their plan for resurgence. When resistance
is defined solely as large-scale political mobilization, we miss much of what
has kept our languages, cultures, and systems of governance alive. We have those
things today because our Ancestors often acted within the family unit to physically
survive, to pass on what they could do to their children, to occupy and use our
lands as we always had. This, in and of itself, tells me a lot about how to build Indigenous renaissance and resurgence“(15-16).
Within this renaissance and resurgence the
First Nations activists mainly criticize
the politics of Recognition and the rhetoric of reconciliation. Especially
the survivors of Residential Schools are not convinced of the “It was bad,
let’s move on” governmental policy. For the government nothing seems to have
changed, there is still a lack of action.
Another
important issue on the program of the activists is the Violence against indigenous Women that the Canadian government and
police officials treat with relative nonchalance. The Native Women‘s
Association reports that about 600 women were reported missing and murdered in
Canada since 1960, a lot of them in B.C. (Vancouver Downtown East side and the
Highway of Tears between Prince George and Terrace, B.C.). Indigenous women
make up 4.3% of the Canadian population, but account for 16% of female
homicides and 11.3% of missing women. In 2011
the Canadian Feminist Allience for International Action and the Native Women‘s
Association brought the issue to the UN as a human rights crisis. Various
requests for a public national enquiery into the issue by the Indigenous and
feminist activists had already been issued but with the death of 15-year old
Tina Fontaine, the demand for national enquiery intensified in August 2014. The
Sagkeen girl was found in a the Red River in Winnipeg (Manitoba), both the
feminist organisations and the UN commission joined in but Prime Minister
Harper issued a statement that “the case should be treated as a crime, not a
„sociological phenomenon“.
Faced with very
little political and official movement/change, the protest was widened onto the
cultural scene. In 2012 the film A Red Girl’s Reasoning written by
Elle-Mßáijá Tailfeathers (Blackfoot and Sámi) premiered. The short film about a vigilante Indigenous woman
exercising revenge upon white men who perpetuate violence against Indigenous
women started
out as an angry rant of a strong women who takes justice into her own hand.
"The film itself started as just a short story, just me writing an angry
rant. I really wanted to see a strong native woman taking justice into her own
hands. The state continues to ignore [violence against indigenous women] all
together. We're second-rate citizens in this country.“ Based on the aesthetics
of comic books and super hero movies the film has received quite positive criticism even
though the sheer level of righteousness and violence was remarked on. Writer
and Director Tailfeathers commented "Some people ask how violence solves
violence. But it's metaphorical violence. Indigenous women, particularly in
Canada, particularly in Vancouver on the Downtown Eastside --these women live violence
on a daily basis. It was interesting to flip that reality.“
“The
art can’t stand Still” (Billy Reid) is a
“collection” of contemporary indigenous art that tries to escape the false
dichotomy of contemporary vs. traditional. Candice Hopkins and Christine Lalonde
commented „If the past is always present in the works of indigenous art, how do
we define contemporary? I think what it does is it shifts out the understanding of contemporary to not just mean‚ this
moment,‘ to have a very surface sense of living in the immediacy. Instead,
it looks at how this moment can always be informed by our actions before it.
It‘s not about an idea of historical progress, but an idea that is always a cycle“. Thus, breaking the cycle has
become a major theme in contemporary art, as Steve Loft remarks: “There
is no ‚contemporary‘, no ‚traditional‘, there is only‚ we are‘.“ (Ontological
category of being).
Literature also
engages with the new self-understanding of Indigenous people and culture, as
Dean Rader notes: “We are now post-Renaissance not simply because of a new
millennium but also because we have passed the ‚rebirth‘ of Native writing. In
fact, we have passed the adolescence and moved well into adulthood”.
(73) And with that flood of new writing has been published and new categories
created, such as the Indigenous Futurism
that engage with the “post-apocalypse stress syndrom“ which is defined as the
state of being “out of balance“(Laurence Gross, Anishinaabe). Both “Terminal Avenue” by Eden Robinson and “On the Wings of This Prayer” by Richard
van Camp are essentially post-apocalyptic texts though they belong to
different genres. While the first is social science fiction, the second falls
into the Horror category. “Native apocalyptic storytelling, then, shows the
ruptures, the scars, and the trauma in its effort ultimately to provide healing
and a return to bimaadiziwin[the state of balance].This is the path to a
sovereignty imbedded in self-determination.“(GraceL.Dillon9)
Richard Van Camp is a member of Dogrib
(Tlicho) Nation from Fort Smith, Northswest Territories. The writer and
storyteller has also written comic and baby books. His novel The Lesser Blessed
was made into a feature film. His short story “On the wings of this Prayer” was published in the collection Death
North that reads: “[Z]ombies have to(w)
rules. Just like vampires, we have crafted, forged and re-forged horrors that
reflect the fears of our time“ (Silvia Moreno-GaricaXI). Eden Robinson (Haisla)
was born in 1968 in a Kikimaat village in British Columbia. As a writer she experiments
with speculative genres of fiction. Her short story “Terminal Avenue” was included in the Anthology Walking Clouds. It moves within science fictional
framework, working with the concept of “techno-surrealism” and with its “phenomenological
inside-the-mind-horror“ (Dilon205).
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